CLIMATE

CLIMATE 

Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of time. 

It is the sum total of weather conditions for larger area. Eg: for a country: 

WEATHER: 
It refers to state of atmosphere over an area at any point of time.
It is the total of weather conditions for limited area.
Eg: for a city

The elements of weather and climate are temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation.

INDIAN CLIMATE

• The climate of India is monsoon type.
•Monsoon is derived from ‘mausim’which means season and it refers to the seasonal reversal in the wind direction during a year.
•In Asia, this type of climate is found mainly in south and south-east.

DIFFERENCES IN INDIAN CLIMATE
In summer the temperature of Rajasthan is about 50’C but in Jammu & Kashmir it’s 20’c.
In winter at J&K the temperature is -45’C but in Thiruvanantapuram its 22’C.
While precipitation is in the form of snowfall in upper parts of Himalyas, it rains over the rest of country.
Most parts receive rainfall from June to July but some like Tamil Nadu receive it even in the season of October and November.

CLIMATIC CONTROLS 
The major controls of climate are:
1. Latitude: Due to curvature the amount of solar energy received varies according to it. 

2. Altitude: As we go higher there is a decrease in temperature of 16’

3. Pressure and Wind system: As per latitude and altitude temperature and rainfall also influences the climate.

4. Distance from sea: The sea exerts moderating influence on climate, regions near sea experiences moderate climate.

5. Ocean Currents: It leads continentality which means very hot during summers and very cold during winters. 

FACTORS AFFECTING INDIAN CLIMATE

1.Latitude:

Tropic of cancer almost divides the country in two equal parts running from Rann of Kuchh to Mizoram.
The region lying in the south of tropic of cancer is tropical whereas the region in north is in sub tropical.
Therefore India receives both tropical as well as sub-tropical climate.

2. Altitude:
India has mountains in north with average height of 6000m and coast line of about 30m.
The Himalayas act as a barrier to enter winds in India from Centeral Asia.
That’s why it experiences mild winters as compare to Centeral Asia.

3.PRESSURE and WINDS
It is further devided in three parts.
•Pressure and surface winds
•Upper air circulation
•Western disturbances
Pressure and surface winds: India lies in the region of north-easterly winds which originate from northern hemispher and blow towards south but
deflected to right due to corollis force.These winds carry small silts that’s why don’t affect India’s rain.

4. Upper air circulation: Winds travel from a low pressure area to high pressure area. Air moves from Indian ocean to south-east direction crossing equator and turns right towards Indian subcontinent giving rain to it. The upper air circulation over warm oceans is called jet stream.

5.Western disturbances: During the time of winters in India cyclone formation takes place in ‘Mediterranean sea’whose winds are very powerful that after crossing Pakistan, Afghanistan they finally reach Jammu and Kashmir leads to rainfall in winters there.

The unifying influence of the monsoon on the Indian subcontinent is quite perceptible. 

The seasonal alteration of the wind systems and the associated weather conditions provide a rhythmic cycle of seasons.
Even the uncertainties of rain and uneven distribution are very much typical of the monsoon.
The Indian landscape, its animal and plant life, the people, including their festivities, revolve around this phenomenon.

Year after year, people of India from north to south and from east to west, eagerly await the arrival of the monsoon.
These monsoon winds bind the whole country by providing water to set the agricultural activities in motion.

The river valleys which carry this water also unite as a single river valley unit.
Early in the season, the windward side of the Western Ghats receives very heavy rainfall, more than 250cm.
The Deccan Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh also receive some amount of rain in spite of lying in the rain shadow area.
The maximum rainfall of this season is received in the north-eastern part of the country.
Rainfall in the Ganga valley decreases from the east to the west.

Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat get scanty rainfall.

The breaks in the monsoon are related to the movement of the monsoon tough.
The trough and its axis keep on moving northward or southward. When the axis of the monsoon trough lies over the plains and widespread rain occur in the Himalayan Rivers.

Mawsynram in the southern ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the highest average rainfall in the world.

Q. Why is monsoon known for its “uncertainties”?
While it causes heavy floods in one part, it may be responsible for droughts in the other.
It is often irregular in its arrival and its retreat. Hence, it sometimes disturbs the farming schedule of millions of farmers all over the country.
During October-November, the monsoon trough or the low pressure trough over the northern plains becomes weaker. This is gradually replaced by a high-pressure system.
The south-east monsoon winds weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By the beginning of the October, the monsoon withdraws from the Northern Plains.
The months of October-November form a period of transition from hot rainy season to dry winter conditions. The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature.
While day temperatures are high, nights are cool and pleasant.
Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive during the day.

This is known as “OCTOBER HEAT”.
The low-pressure conditions, over north-western India, get transferred to the Bay of Bengal by early November.
This shift is associated with the occurrence of cyclonic depressions, which originates over the Andaman Sea.
These cyclones generally cross the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and widesprad rain.
These tropical cyclones are often very destructive.
The thickly populated deltas of the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri are frequently struck by cyclones, which cause great damage to life and property.

THE SEASONS
The monsoon type of climate is characterised by a distinct seasonal pattern.
The weather conditions greatly change from one season to the other.

The coastal areas do not experience much variation in temperature though there is variation  in rainfall pattern.

Four main seasons can be identified in India-

the cold weather season,

hot weather season,

the advancing monsoon and

the retreating monsoon with some regional variations.

THE COLD WEATHER SEASON (WINTER)
1. The cold weather season begins from mid- November in northern India and stays  till February.
2. December and January are the coldest months in the northern part of India.
3. The temperature decreases from south to the north.
4. Days are warm and nights are cold.
5. Frost is common in the north and the higher slopes of Himalayas experience
snowfall.
6. The northeast trade winds blow from land to sea and hence, for most part of the
country, it is a dry season.
7. Some amount of rainfall occurs on the Tamil Nadu coast from these winds as,
here they blow from sea to land.
8. The weather is normally marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity and feeble variable winds.
9. A characteristic feature of the cold weather season over the northern plains is a
the inflow of cyclonic disturbances from the west and the northwest.
10.They cause the much- needed winter rains over the plains and snowfall in the
mountains.
11.Total amount of winter rainfall locally known as ‘mahawat’ is small; they are of    immense importance for the cultivation of ‘rabi’ crops.
12. The peninsular region does not have well- defined cold season.

THE HOT WEATHER SEASON (SUMMER)
1. From March to May, it is hot weather season in India.
2. The influence of shifting of the heat belt can be seen clearly from temperature
recordings taken during March- May at different latitudes.
3. In peninsular India, temperature remain lower due to the moderating influence of the oceans.
4. The summer months experience rising temperature and falling air pressure in the
northern part of the country.
5. Towards the end of May, an elongated low pressure area develops in the region
extending from the Thar Desert in the northwest to Patna and Chotanagpur plateau
and southeast.
6. The striking feature of the hot weather season is the ‘loo’. These are strong, gusty, hot, dry winds blowing during the day over the north and northwestern India.
7. Dust storms are very common during the month of May in northern India. These  storms bring temporary relief as they lower the temperature and may bring light rain and cool breeze.
8. In West Bengal, these storms are known as ‘Kaal Baisakhi’.
9. Towards the close of the summer season, pre- monsoon showers are common
especially, in Kerala and Karnataka.

DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL
There are three types of rainfall :-
-Low rainfall (Less than 50 cm.)
- Average rainfall (Between 50 to 250 cm.)
- High rainfall (More than 250 cm.)

1. Parts of western coast and northern India receive over about 400 cm of rainfall
annually.
2. It is less than 60cm in western Rajasthan and adjoining parts of Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab.
3. Rainfall is equally low in the interior of Deccan plateau, and east of the Sahyadris.
4. The rest of the country receives moderate rainfall. Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region.

Because of the nature of monsoons, the annual rainfall is highly variable from year to year. Variability is high in the regions of low rainfall such as parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and leeward (rain shadow area) side of the Western Ghats. While the areas of high rainfall are responsible to be affected by the floods and the areas of low rainfall are drought- prone.

SOME  IMPORTANT TERMS
1. Frost-  A state in freezing, frozen dew.

2. Loo- Strong, gusty, hot, dry winds blowing during the day over the north and northwestern India.

3. Mango showers- Pre-monsoon showers in Kerala and Karnataka help in ripening of mangoes earlier, known as monsoon showers.

4. Trough- large vacuum in between of the Himalayas and the peninsular plateau, the plains.

5. Leeward- Rain shadow area. 

6. Climate: The sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of time (more than thirty years) is called climate.

7. Weather: The state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time is called weather.

8. Monsoon: This type of climate is mainly found in the south and Southeast Asia. The climate of India is of monsoon type. The seasonal reversal in wind direction during a year is called monsoon.

9. Coriolis Force: An apparent force caused by the earth’s rotation is called Coriolis Force. The winds are deflected towards right in the northern hemisphere and towards the left in the southern hemisphere due to this force. This is also known as ‘Ferrel’s Law’.

10. Jet Stream: Fast flowing and narrow air currents are called jet streams. The streams flow at high altitudes (about 12,000 feet) in the troposphere. Their speed varies from about 110 km/h in summer to 184 km/h in winter.

Western Cyclonic Disturbance:

The western cyclonic disturbances are weather phenomena of the winter months brought in by the westerly flow from the Mediterranean region.

They usually influence the weather of the north and north-western regions of India.

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ):

The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ,) is a broad trough of low pressure in equatorial latitudes.

The northeast and the southeast trade winds converge in this zone.

This zone lies more or less parallel to the equator.

 It moves north or south with the apparent movement of the sun.

CLIMATIC CONTROLS

There are six major controls of the climate of any place. They are:

Latitude, Altitude, Pressure and wind system, Distance from the sea, Ocean currents and Relief features

Factors Affecting India’s Climate

Latitude: The Indian landmass is equally divided by The Tropic of Cancer. Hence, half of India has tropical climate and another half has subtropical climate.

Altitude: While the average elevation in the coastal areas is about 30 metre, the average elevation in the north is about 6,000 metre. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the Indian subcontinent. Due to this, the subcontinent gets comparatively milder winters as compared to Central Asia.

Pressure and Winds: The Indian subcontinent lies in the region of north-easterly winds. These winds originate from the subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern hemisphere. After that, these winds blow towards south. They get deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force and then move towards the low pressure area near the equator.

The north-easterly winds originate and blow over the land and hence they carry very little moisture. India should have been an arid land because of these winds but that is not the case.

There is high-pressure area towards the north of the Himalayas. Cold winds from this region blow to the low pressure areas over the oceans in the south.

During summer, low-pressure area develops over interior Asia and also over northwestern India. This results in a complete reversal of the direction of winds during summer.

Air moves from the high-pressure area moves over the southern Indian Ocean in a south-easterly direction. It crosses the equator and turns right towards the low-pressure areas over the Indian subcontinent.

These winds are known as the Southwest Monsoon wind. They collect moisture from the warm oceans and bring widespread rainfall over the mainland of India.

The upper air circulation in this region is dominated by a westerly flow. Jet stream is an important component of this flow. These jet streams are called subtropical westerly jet streams because they are located approximately over 27°-30° north latitude.

The westerly jet streams are responsible for western cyclonic disturbances in the north and north-western parts of India. The subtropical westerly jet stream moves north of the Himalayas with the apparent movement of the sun.

The tropical jet stream (an easterly jet stream) blows over the Indian Peninsula; approximately over 14° north during the summer months.

NCERT Solution

Q 1.Which one of the following places receives the highest rainfall in the world?

Silchar

Cherrapunji

Mawsynram

Guwahati

Ans: (c) Mawsynram

Q 2 . The wind blowing in the northern plains in summers is known as:

Kaal Baisakhi

Trade Winds

Loo

None of the above

Ans: (c) Loo

Q 3. Which one of the following causes rainfall during winters in north-western part of India.

Cyclonic depression

Western disturbances

Retreating monsoon

Southwest monsoon

Ans; (b) Western disturbances

Q 4 . Monsoon arrives in India approximately in:

Early May

Early June

Early July

Early August

Ans: (b) Early June

Q 5. Which one of the following characterizes the cold weather season in India?

Warm days and warm nights

Warm days and cold nights

Cool days and cold nights

Cold days and warm nights

Ans: (c) Cool days and cold nights

Q 6 . What are the controls affecting the climate of India?

Ans: Latitude, Altitude and Pressure and Winds are the main factors which affect the climate of India.

Q 7 .Why does India have a monsoon type of climate?

Answer: India comes in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). This fact; in association with various other factors, like the El Nino, Jet Stream and Coriolois Force are the reasons for monsoon type of climate in India.

Q 8. Which part of India does experience the highest diurnal range of temperature and why?

Ans: Northwestern part of India experiences the highest diurnal range of temperature. This happens because of the presence of the Thar Desert and also because this region does not have the moderating influence of the ocean.

Q 9. Which winds account for rainfall along the Malabar Coast?

Ans: Monsoon winds

Q10 .What are Jet streams and how do they affect the climate of India?

Answer: Fast flowing and narrow air currents are called jet streams.

The streams flow at high altitudes (about 12,000 feet) in the troposphere.

The westerly jet streams are responsible for western cyclonic disturbances in the north and north-western parts of India.

The subtropical westerly jet stream moves north of the Himalayas with the apparent movement of the sun.

The tropical jet stream (an easterly jet stream) blows over the Indian Peninsula; approximately over 14° north during the summer months.

Q11. Define monsoons. What do you understand by “break” in monsoon?

Ans: The seasonal reversal in wind direction during a year is called monsoon. Monsoon tends to have ‘breaks’ in rainfall; which means that there are wet and dry spells in between. The monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time and then come the rainless intervals.

Q12 .Why is the monsoon considered a unifying bond?

Answer: Although there are wide variations in weather patterns across India, the monsoon brings some unifying influences on India. The Indian landscape, its flora and fauna, etc. are highly influenced by the monsoon. The entire agricultural calendar in India is governed by the monsoon. Most of the festivals in India are related to agricultural cycle. These festivals may be known by different names in different parts of the country, but their celebration is decided by the monsoon. It is also said that the river valleys which carry the rainwater also unite as a single river valley unit. Due to these reasons, monsoon is often a great unifying factor in India.

Q 13.Why does the rainfall decrease from the east to the west in Northern India?

Ans: The Bay of Bengal branch of the monsoon winds moves towards northeast and return westwards covering the northern plains.

While they move towards west, their moisture contains tends to reduce with subsequent rains.

Hence the rainfall decreases from east to west in northern India.

Q14.Give reasons as to why

(a)Seasonal reversal of wind direction takes place over the Indian subcontinent?

Ans: Seasonal reversal of wind direction over the Indian subcontinent takes place due to pressure differential. El Nino has major role to play in the seasonal reversal of wind direction over the Indian subcontinent.

(b)The bulk of rainfall in India is concentrated over a few months.

Ans: The monsoon begins from the first week of June and advances quite rapidly to cover almost the whole country by mid-July. Hence, the bulk of rainfall in India is concentrated over the months of a few months; mainly June to August.

(c)The Tamil Nadu coast receives winter rainfall.

Ans: The Tami Nadu coast receives winter rainfall because of movement of low-pressure conditions to the Bay of Bengal.

(d)The delta region of the eastern coast is frequently struck by cyclones.

Ans: The Bay of Bengal is the centre of various pressure changes and hence there is always a chance of development of cyclone. Due to this, the delta region of the eastern coast is frequently struck by cyclones.

(e) Parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the leeward side of the Western Ghats are drought-prone.

Ans: The parts fall in the rain shadow area of the Aravalli. Hence, they are drought prone.

Q15. Describe the regional variations in the climatic conditions of India with the help of suitable examples.

Ans: Indian Peninsular shows wide variations in climatic conditions across various regions. For example; during winter season, the temperature goes into negative in the Himalayan region.

In the northwestern India, temperatures can range between zero degree to 15°C during winter.

During the same season, the temperature in Chennai remains a comfortable 25°C. The same variation can be seen in summer as well, while the temperature in Rajasthan can hover around 47°C, it is a comfortable 30°C in Chennai.

Q 16. Discuss the mechanism of monsoons.

Ans: The low-pressure condition over the northern plains intensifies by the beginning of June.

It attracts the trade winds from the southern hemisphere.

These south-east trade winds cross the equator and blow in a south-westerly direction to enter the Indian peninsula as the south-west monsoon.

These winds bring abundant moisture to the subcontinent.

Q17. Give an account of weather conditions and characteristics of the cold season.

Ans: The temperature ranges between 10°-15°C in the northern plains.

The weather is usually marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity and feeble variable winds.

The inflow of the cyclonic disturbances from the west and the northwest is a characteristic feature of the cold weather over the northern plains.

These low-pressure systems originate over the Mediterranean Sea and Western Asia and move into India. They cause winter rains over the plains and snowfall in the mountains.

Q 18. Give the characteristics and effects of the monsoon rainfall in India.

Ans: Monsoon tends to have ‘breaks’ in rainfall; which means that there are wet and dry spells in between. The monsoon is famous for its uncertainties. It may cause heavy floods in one part of the country, and may be responsible for droughts in other part. Because of its uncertain behaviour, it sometimes disturbs the farming schedule in India. This affects millions of farmers all over the country.

Forest Society and Colonialism

Diversity in forests has been disappearing very quickly. During the period of industrialization (between 1700 and 1995), 13.9 million square km of forest was cleared for industrial uses, cultivation, pasture and fuelwood. This turns out to be 9.3% of the total area of the world. Disappearance of forests is called deforestation. The process of deforestation began many centuries ago, but became more systematic and extensive during the colonial period.

Land to be Improved

About one-sixth of India’s landmass was under cultivation in 1600. At present, almost half of the landmass in India has come under cultivation.

Effect of Colonial Rule on Forest Cover

Colonizers all over the world thought that uncultivated land should be taken over so that that could be used for more commercial purposes. The production of commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat and cotton increased during this period. This happened because of increasing demand from a growing population in Europe. Foodgrain was required to feed the growing population and raw materials were needed for the growing industries. the cultivated area increased by 6.7 million hectares between 1880 and 1920 in India.

The oak forests were disappearing in England by the early twentieth century. This created scarcity for the ship building industry in Britain. Ships were quite important for military power of the British. They found good source of wood for shipbuilding in the Indian forests. This began cutting of trees on a large scale in the Indian forests.

The spread of railways from the 1850s created new demand for timber. Timber was required for making sleepers for the railway line. Each mile of railway track needed 1,760 to 2,000 sleepers. About 25,500 km of track had been laid by 1890. It is obvious that a large number of trees were felled to meet this demand.

Plantations

The British also introduced large plantations for growing tea, coffee and rubber. European planters were given vast areas of land at cheap rates so that they could develop plantations. The area was cleared of forests to make way for tea or coffee.

To properly control and manage the forest resources in India, the British appointed a German expert, Dietrich Brandis, as the first Inspector General of Forests in India. Brandis introduced a new system and began to train people in conservation of forest resources. The Indian Forest Service was set up in 1864 and the Indian Forest Act was introduced in 1865.

Grazing, felling of trees and any use of forest produce was made illegal and punishable offence. In the name of scientific forestry, they replaced natural vegetation with single type of trees like sal or eucalyptus. The modern conservationists tell this system as monoculture and argue that it is not good for the environment.

The Indian Forest Act was amended twice, once in 1878 and then in 1927. The 1878 Act divided forests into three categories: reserved, protected and village forests. They used to take food, medicines, firewood and many other raw materials from forests. The new laws made their life miserable. They could not longer take their herds for grazing nor collect firewood. They were now forced to steal wood from the forests. But there always was the risk of being caught and harassed by the forest guards.

How did Forest Rules Affect Cultivation?

Shifting cultivation has been prevalent among many tribal communities in India. This is a type of subsistence farming in which a small patch of land is cleared by slashing and burning the vegetation. Ash is then mixed with the soil and crops are grown. The patch of land is utilised for a couple of years and is then left fallow for 10 to 12 years.

The colonial officials regarded this practice as harmful for the forests. They were afraid that an accidental fire could destroy valuable timber. Moreover, the shifting cultivators were difficult to control in revenue collection. The government hence banned shifting cultivation.

This affected many families. Many people were forced to work in low paying jobs, some were forced to migrate to cities in search of job. However, some people tried to resist the new laws through small and large rebellions.

Who could Hunt?

Many tribal people used to hunt some animals; like deer and partridges; for food. Hunting was banned and anyone caught hunting was punished. But the Indian Rajas and the British officials continue to hunt large and ferocious animals. They thought that killing the ferocious animals would help in making the life much safer. Moreover, hunting of tiger or lion was considered to be a sign of bravery and valour. Many rajas and British officials used to display the skin and heads of animals as prized possession.

New Trades, New Employments and New Services

The new trade was mainly controlled by the British people with some participation of Indian merchants. For the forest dwellers no significant opportunities emerged. Many people from Jharkhand, Orissa, and Chhattisgarh were forced to work in tea gardens of Assam and West Bengal. But the working condition in the tea gardens was very bad. People were given low wages and there was no permission to come back to their home villages in between. Many nomadic tribes who had earlier been engaged in trade of forest produce continued to do so.

The People of Bastar

Bastar is located in the southernmost part of Chhattisgarh and borders Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Maharashtra. Many tribal communities; like Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhruwas, Bhatras and Halbas; live in this area. They speak different languages but share common customs and beliefs. These tribal people had always been dependent on forests and had developed the practice of keeping the forest in high reverence.

The Fears of the People

When about two-thirds of the forest was made into reserve forest and shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce was stopped, it disturbed the people of Bastar. Some villagers were allowed to stay in the reserved forests. But they had to work for free for the forest department. The work included cutting and transporting trees and protecting the forest from fires. Such villages came to be known as ‘forest villages’.

But most of the people were forced to leave their villages. Their problem was further aggravated by the famines of 1899-1900 and 1907-08. People began to group together. The Dhurwas were the people to take initiative. There was no single leader but Gunda Dhur from village Nethanar was an important figure in that rebellion. The rebellion began in 1910 and every village contributed towards the rebellion expenses. The rebels looted the bazaars, houses of officials and traders. They burnt schools and police stations.

The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion. Negotiations by adivasi leaders failed and the British surrounded their camps and fired upon them. Most of the villages became deserted as people too refuge in the jungles. It took three months (February-May) to control the rebellion.

Work on reservation of forest was suspended for the time being. The area to be reserved to reduced to about half of what was earlier planned. This was a major victory for the rebels.

FOREST TRANSFORMATION IN JAVA

Java is in Indonesia and it used to be a Dutch colony. This was the place where the new forest management policy was initiated by the colonial rulers.

The Woodcutters of Java

The Kalangs of Java were a community of skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators. Their expertise was valuable for the kings; for building palaces. Their importance can be gauged from the fact that when the Mataram kingdom of Java split in 1755, the 6,000 Kalang families were equally divided between the two kingdoms.

When the Dutch began to gain control over the forests in the eighteenth century, they also tried to take the Kalangs under their control. They resisted by attacking the Dutch fort in 1770 but their rebellion was suppressed.

Dutch Scientific Forestry

New forest laws were introduced by the Dutch. Villagers’ access to the forests was restricted. Permission was given to cut wood only for specific purposes; like making boats and houses. Grazing was banned in young stands. Wood could not be transported and travelling on forest road by horse cart or cattle was also banned.

Wood was cut on large scale to meet the demand for railways and shipping. In 1882 the number of sleepers exported from Java alone was 280,000.

Rent was introduced on villagers who cultivated in the forest. Some villages were exempted in lieu of providing free labour and buffalo for cutting and transporting the wood. This was known as the blandongdiensten system.

Samin’s Challenge

Around 1890, Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village, a teak forest village, began questioning state ownership of the forest. He began to convince his folks about the wrong policies of the colonial rulers. Many families joined that rebellion. People protested by lying down on their land when the Dutch came to survey it. Many others refused to pay taxes or fines or do work.

War and Deforestation

The two World Wars had major impacts on forests. More trees were cut to meet the wartime needs of Britain.

In Java, the Dutch followed ‘scorched earth’ policy just before the Japanese occupation of the region. They destroyed sawmills and burnt huge piles of giant teak logs. The Japanese continued the exploitation of forests. They forced forest villagers to cut down forests. For many villagers, it was an opportunity to expand cultivated area.

CONCEPTS:

DEFORESTATION:-

Deforestation is cutting down of trees indiscriminately in a forest area. Under the colonial rule it became very systematic and extensive.

Why Deforestation

As population increased over the centuries and the demand for food went up, peasants extended the boundaries of cultivation by clearing forests.

The British encouraged the production of commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat and cotton for their industries as raw material.

The British thought that forests were unproductive land as they yielded neither revenue nor agricultural produce. Cultivation was viewed as a sign of progress. Oak forests in England were disappearing. There was no timber supply for the shipbuilder industry. Forest resources of India were used to make ships for the Royal Navy.

Spread of railways required two things :

land to be cleared to lay railway tracks

wood as fuel for locomotives and for railway line sleepers.

Large areas of natural forests were cleared for tea, coffee and rubber plantations. Thus land was given to planters at cheap rates.

COMMERCIAL FORESTRY:-

The British were worried that the use of forests by local people and the reckless felling of trees by traders would destroy forests and hence invited German expert Dietrich Brandis as first Inspector General of Forests in India.

Brandis set up the Indian Forest Service in 1864 and helped formulate the Indian Forest Act of1865. The Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up in Dehradun in 1906.Scientific forestry was taught there. In the scientific forestry system, forests with different kinds of trees were replaced by plantations. Forest management plans were made by forest officials. They planned how much of the forest had to be cut and how much had to be replanted.

The Forest Acts: According to this act the forest were divided into three categories, but the villagers were dissatisfied with this Forest Acts. They were now forced to steal wood from the forests. If they were caught, they were punished.

Forest Rules and Cultivation

Shifting cultivation or Sweden agriculture was the agricultural practice in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America. The colonial foresters did not favour this system as it made it difficult for the government to calculate taxes. In addition, the forest officials saw in it the danger of fire and also that no trees could grow on this kind of land.

Hunting and Forest Laws: The forest laws forbade the villagers from hunting in the forests but encouraged hunting as a big sport. They felt that the wild animals were savage, wild and primitive, just like the Indian society and that it was their duty to civilise them.

New Trade and New Employment: New opportunities opened in trade as the forest department took control of the forests, e.g., the Mundurucu peoples of the Brazilian Amazon. With the colonial influence trade was completely regulated by the government. Many large European trading firms were given the sole right to trade in forest products of a particulate area. Many pastoral communities lost their means of livelihood. New opportunities of work did not always mean improved well-being for the people.

FOREST REBELLIONS

Forest communities rebelled against the changes imposed upon them. The people of Bastar were one such group. The initiative was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest where reservation first took place. The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion. It took them three months to regain control. A victory for the people of Bastar was that the work on reservation was suspended and the area was reduced to half.

CHANGES IN JAVA:

The Kalangs: They rose in rebellion against the Dutch in 1770 but their uprising was suppressed.

Scientific Forestry in Java: Forest laws were enacted in Java. The villagers resisted these laws.Forest timber was used for ships and railway sleepers. The Dutch government used the ‘balandongdiensten’ system for extracting free labour from the villagers.

Samin’s Movement: Samin of Randublatung village (a teak forest village) questioned the state ownership of forests. A widespread movement spread. They protested by lying on the ground when the Dutch came to survey it and refusing to pay taxes and perform labour.

World Wars and Deforestation: The world wars had a major impact on forests. The forest department cut freely to meet the British demands. The Dutch followed the scorched earth policy of destroying saw mills, burning logs of teak so that the Japanese could not benefit from it. The Japanese forced the villagers to cut down forests, when they occupied the area.

New Developments: Conservation and preservation of forests has now become the focus rather than timber. It has also been realised that if forests are to survive, the local community needs to be involved. There are many such examples in India where communities are conserving forests in sacred groves. This looking after is done by each member of the village and everyone is involved.

Tea/Coffee plantations — The colonial state thought that forest land was unproductive.

It is unable to yield agricultural production or revenue collection. Large areas of natural forests were hence cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations to meet Europe’s growing need for these commodities. The colonial government took over the forests and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates. The areas were enclosed and cleared of forests and planted with tea or coffee.

Advasis and other peasant users — Adivasis and other peasant users do not cut down forests except to practice shifting cultivation or gather timber for fuel. They also gather forest products and graze their cattle. This does not destroy the forests except sometimes in shifting agriculture. In fact, now the new trends that promote forest conservation tend to involve local villagers in conservation and preservation. The adivasis and other peasant communities regard the forests as their own and even engage watchmen to keep a vigil over their forests.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Who was the colonial power in Indonesia?

(a) British (b) Dutch (c) French (d) Portuguese

Q.2.Which place is now famous as a rice-producing island in Indonesia?

(a) Java (b) Sumatra (c) Borneo (d) Kalimantan

Q.3. Where did the Dutch start forest management in Indonesia?

(a) Java (b) Sumatra (c) Bali (d) None of the above

Q.4. Who was ‘Kalangs’ of Java?

(a) Dynasty of rulers (b) Skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators

(c) A community of moneylenders (d) none of the above

Q.5 The Kalangs resisted the Dutch in

(a) 1700 (b) 1750 (c) 1770 (d) 1800

Q.6. According to the forest laws enacted by the Dutch in Java,

(a) Villagers’ access to forest was restricted

(b) Wood could be cut only for specified purposes like making river boats or constructing houses

(c) Villagers were punished for grazing cattle

(d) All the above

Q.7.What was the system of ‘blandongdiensten’?

(a) A system of education (b) Industrialisation

(c) First imposition of rent on land and then exemption (d) None of the above

Q.8.What did Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village, a teak forest village, begin questioning?

(a) The foreign policy of the Dutch (b) State ownership of the forest

(c) The export policy of the Dutch (d) none of the above

Q.9.What was the policy followed by the British in India towards forests during the First and the Second World Wars?

(a) The forest department cut trees freely to meet British war needs

(b) Cutting of trees was strictly prohibited for everyone, including the British

(c) More and more trees were planted to give employment to Indians

(d) None of the above

Q.10.What is the goal of governments across Asia and Africa since the 1980s?

(a) Conservation of forests (b) Collection of timber

(c) Settling people in forest areas (d) Destroying old forests and growing new ones

Q.11. Who wrote the book ‘The Forests of India’ in the year 1923?

(a) David Spurr (b) E.P. Stebbing (c) Verrier Elvin (d) John Middleton

Q12. Which of the following is not associated with Sweden agriculture?

(a) Karacha (b) Jhum (c) Bewar (d) Penda

Q13. Indian Forest Service was set up in the year:

(a) 1865 (b) 1864 (c) 1854 (d) 1884

Q14. Which of the following was not a tribal community?

(a) Karacha (b) Jhum (c) Korava (d) Yerukula

Q15. The system of scientific forestry stands for:

(a) System whereby the local farmers were allowed to cultivate temporarily within a plantation

(b) System of cutting old trees and plant new ones

(c) Division of forest into three categories

(d) Disappearance of forests

Q16. In which year the Baster rebellion took place?

(a) 1910 (b) 1909 (c) 1911 (d) 1912

Q17. In South-East Asia shifting agriculture is known as:

(A) Chitemene (b) Tavy (c) Lading (d) Milpa

Q18. The Gond forest community belongs to which of the following

(a) Chhattisgarh (b) Jharkhand (c) Jammu and Kashmir (d) Gujarat

Q19. Forests consisting of which type of trees were preferred by the Forest Department?

(a) Forests having trees which provided fuel, fodder and leaves

(b) Forests having soft wood

(c) Forests having trees suitable for building ships and railways

Q20. Which of the following term is not associated with shifting agriculture in India?

(a) Penda (b) Bewar (c) Khandad (d) Lading

Q21. Which of the following is a community of skilled forest cutters?

(a) Maasais of Africa (b) Mundas of Chotanagpur(c) Gonds of Orissa (d) Kalangs of Java

Q22. Why did the government decide to ban shifting cultivation? (a) To grow trees for railway timber

(b) When a forest was burnt, there was the danger of destroying valuable timber

(c) Difficulties for the government to calculate taxes

(d) All the above reasons

Q23. Wooden planks lay across railway tracks to hold these tracks in a position are called:

(a) Beams (b) Sleepers (c) Rail fasteners (d) none of these

Q24. Which of the following was the most essential for the colonial trade and movement of goods?

(a) Roadways (b) Railways (c) Airways (d) River ways

Q25. Which of the following is a commercial crop?

(a) Rice (b) Wheat (c) Cotton (d) Maize

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Q.1 what is deforestation? Why is it considered harmful?

Ans. 1 The disappearance of forests is referred to as deforestation. Forests are cleared for industrial uses, cultivation, pastures and fuel wood.

2.Clearing of forests is harmful as forests give us many things like paper, wood that makes our desks, tables, doors and windows, dyes that colour our clothes, spices in our food, gum, honey, coffee, tea and rubber. They are the home of animals and birds.

3. Forests check soil erosion and denudation, sand dunes. They preserve our ecological diversity and life support systems.

Q.2. Describe scientific forestry.

Ans. 1. In scientific forestry, different types of natural forests were cut down. In their place one type of tree was planted in straight rows. This is called a plantation.

2. Forest officials surveyed the forests, estimated the area under different types of trees and made working plans for forest management. They planned how much of the plantation area to be cut every year.

3.The forest area was cut down then to be replanted.

Q.3. Mention the various uses of forests

Ans. 1.Forests give us a mixture of things to satisfy our different needs — fuel, fodder, leaves, trees suitable for building ships or railways, trees that can provide hard wood.

2. Forest products like roots, fruits, tubers, herbs are used for medicinal purposes, wood for agricultural implements like yokes, ploughs etc. Forests provide shelter to animals and birds. They also add moisture to atmosphere. Rainfall is trapped in forest lands.

Q.4.What is shifting agriculture? Why was it regarded as harmful by the British?

Ans. 1.Shifting agriculture or Sweden agriculture is a traditional agricultural practice in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America. It has many local names such as ‘lading’ in South-EastAsia, ‘milpa’ in central America, ‘chitemene’ or ‘tavy’ in Africa, ‘chena’ in Sril Lanka, dhya, Penda, bewar, nevad, jhum, podu, khandad and kumri in India.

2.In shifting cultivation, parts of a forest are cut and burnt in rotation, seeds are sown in ashes after the first monsoon rains and the crop is harvested by October-November. Such plots are cultivated for a couple of years and then left fallow for 12 to 18 years for the forest to grow back.

3.It was regarded as harmful by the British for the forests. They felt that land which was used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees for railway timber. When the forest was burnt there was the danger of the flames spreading and burning valuable timber.

Q.5. Explain why did the Dutch adopt the ‘scorched earth policy’ during the war.

Ans.1. The First World War and Second World War had a major impact on forests. In India, working places were abandoned and trees were cut freely to meet British demand for war needs.

2. In Java, just before the Japanese occupied the region, the Dutch followed the ‘scorched earth policy’ destroying saw mills, burning huge piles of giant teak logs so that they could not fall into Japanese hands.

Q.6. How did the forest rules affect cultivation?

Ans. 1.One of the major impacts of European colonialism was on the practice of shifting cultivation or Jhoom cultivation .In shifting cultivation, a clearing is made in the forest, usually on the slopes of the hills. After the trees are cut, they are burnt to provide ashes. The seeds are then scattered in the area, and left to be irrigated by the rain.

2. Shifting cultivation was harmful for forests and the land both.

3. It also made it harder for the Government to calculate taxes. Therefore, the government decided to ban shifting cultivation.

Q.7. Why did land under cultivation increase during colonial rule?

Ans. During the British domination of India, the British encouraged the cultivation of cash crops such as jute, indigo, cotton, etc. Food crops were also required to be grown for food. Both things were important. 2.Secondly, the forests were considered unproductive by the British government and hence large areas of forests were cleared for agriculture. Now this forest land could be cultivated to enhance the income of this state.

Q.8.What did Dietrich Brandis suggest for the improvement of forests in India?

Ans. Dietrich Brandis suggested that a proper system had to be followed. Felling of trees and grazing land had to be protected. Rules about use of forests should be made. Anyone who broke rules needed to be punished. Brandis set up in 1864 the Indian Forest Service. He also helped to formulate the Indian Forest Act of 1865.

Q.9.What was taught at the Imperial Forest Research Institute? How was this system carried out?

Ans. 1.Scientific forestry was taught at the Imperial Forest Research Institute. In this system, natural forests which had a variety of trees were cut down and, instead, one type of tree was planted.

2. Appointed forest officials managed these forests. They planned and assessed how much of the planted area had to be cut down and how much had to be replanted.

Q.10. Differentiate between the customary practice of hunting and hunting as a sport in India, after the Forest Acts were passed.

Ans. Before the laws were passed, people who depended on forests hunted birds and small animals for food. After the laws were passed, hunting of big game became a sport. Under colonial rule the scale of hunting increased so much that many species became extinct. Rewards were given for killing tigers, wolves, etc., on the pretext that they were a threat to human life. Certain areas of the forests were reserved for hunting.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS [5 MARKS]

Q.1. Discuss the rise of commercial forestry under the colonial governments.

Ans. 1. Commercial forestry became important during the British rule. By the early nineteenth century oak forests in England were disappearing. This created a problem of shortage of timber supply for the Navy.

2. The English ships could not be built without a regular supply of strong and durable timber to protect and maintain imperial power.

3. Because of the factors given above, before 1856 the commercial forestry was considered important in India. By the 1820s, search parties were sent to explore the forest resources of India.

4. These parties gave them green signal for commercial forestry in India. Within a decade trees were being felled on a massive scale and large quantities of timber were being exported from India. 5.The spread of railway from the 1850s created a new demand. In India, the colonial government felt that railways were essential for effective internal administration, for colonial trade, for the quick movement of imperial troops.

Q.3. “The introduction of extremely exploitative and oppressive policies proved to be a disaster.” With reference to Bastar —

(a) What were these policies? (b) What were the consequences of these policies?

Ans. (a) The colonial government proposed to reserve two-thirds of the forest in 1905 and stop shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce.

The people of Baster were very worried. Some villages were allowed to remain on in the reserved forests on the condition that they worked free for the forest department in cutting and transporting trees and protecting the forests from fires.

Subsequently these came to be known as forest villages. People of other villages were displaced without any notice or compensation. For long the villagers had been suffering from increased land rents and frequent demands for free labour and goods by colonial officials.

Then came the terrible famines in 1899-1900 and again in 1907-1908. Reservations proved to be the last straw.

(b) People began to gather and discuss these issues in their village councils, in bazars and at festivals or wherever the headmen and priests of several villages were assembled. The initiative was taken by the Dhruvas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first took place.

Although there was no single leader, many people speak of Gunda Dhur from villageNethanar as an important figure in the movement in 1910 mango boughs, a limp of earth, chillies and arrows, began circulating between villages.

 These were actually messages inviting villagers to rebel against the British. Every village contributed something to the rebellion expenses. Bazars were looted, the houses of officials and traders, schools and police stations were burnt and robbed and grain redistributed.

The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion. The adivasi leaders tried to negotiate, but the British surrounded their camps and fired upon them. After that they marched through the villages, flogging and punishing those who had taken part in the rebellion. It took three months for the British to regain control.

However, they never managed to capture Gunda Dhur. In a major victory for the rebels, work on reservation was temporarily suspended and the area to be reserved was reduced to roughly that planned before 1910. Were forcibly displaced from their homes in the forests. Some had to change occupations, while some resisted through large and small rebellions.

Q.5. How did the following contribute towards the decline of forest cover in India between1880-1920

(a) Railways and shipbuilding (b) Commercial farming

Ans. (a) (1) Railways: The spread of railways from 1850s created a new demand. Railways were essential for successful colonial control, administration, trade and movement of troops.

Thus to run locomotives,

(a) wood was needed as fuel

 (b) and to lay railway lines as sleepers were essential to hold tracks together.

 As the railway tracks spread throughout India, larger and larger number of trees were felled. Forests around the railway tracks started disappearing fast.

(2) Shipbuilding: UK had the largest colonial empire in the world. Shortage of oak forests created a great timber problem for the shipbuilding of England. For the Royal Navy, large wooden boats, ships, courtyards for shipping etc., trees from Indian forests were being felled on massive scale from the 1820s or 1830s to export large quantities of timber from India. Thus the forest cover of the subcontinent declined rapidly.

(b) Commercial Farming: Large areas of natural forest were also cleared to make space for the plantations or commercial farming. Jute, rubber, indigo, tobacco etc. were the commercial crops that were planted to meet Britain’s growing need for these commodities. The British colonial government took over the forests and gave of a vast area and export to Europe. Large areas of forests were cleared on the hilly slopes to plant tea or coffee.

This also contributed to the decline of the forest cover in India.

Q.6. How was colonial management of forests in Bastar similar to that of Java?

Ans. The colonial government imposed new forest laws according to which two-thirds of the forests were reserved. Shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce was banned.

Most people in forest villages were displaced without notice or compensation.

In the same way, when the Dutch gained control over the forests in Java, they enacted forest laws, restricting villagers' access to forests. Now wood could only be cut for specific purposes and from specific forests under close supervision.

Villagers were punished for grazing cattle, transporting wood without a permit or travelling on forest road with horse-carts or cattle. This was the similarity between the British (in Bastar) and Dutch (in Java) management of forests.

Q.7. What new trends and developments have affected the forestry of today?

Ans. 1.Since the 1980s governments across Asia and Africa have begun to see that scientific forestry and the policy of keeping forest communities away from forests has resulted in many conflicts. Conservation of forests rather than collecting timber has become a more important goal.

2.The government has realised/recognised that in order to meet this goal, the people who live near the forests must be involved.

3.In many cases, across India, from Mizoram to Kerala, dense forests have survived only because villagers protected them in sacred groves known as sarnas, Devarakudu, kau, rai etc. Some villages have been patrolling their own forests, with each household taking it in turns, instead of leaving it to the forest guards. Local forest communities and environmentalists today are thinking of different forms of forest management.

Q.8. Where is Bastar located? Discuss its history and its people

Ans. 1. Bastar is situated in the southern part of Chhattisgarh and borders Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. The river Indrāvati flows from east to west across Bastar. The central part ofBastar is a plateau. To the north of this plateau is the Chhattisgarh plain and to its south is the Godavari plain.

2.The people of Bastar believe that each village was bestowed land by the earth and hence they offer something in return during agricultural celebrations. Apart from the earth the people of Bastar show reverence to the spirits of rivers, forests and the mountains.

3.Different communities such as Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas practise common customs and beliefs but speak different dialects. Each village is well aware of its boundaries. They look after and preserve their natural resources.

4.There exists a give and take relationship among the communities. If a village wants some forest produce from another village a small price is paid before taking it. This price is called ‘dhand’ or ‘man’ or ‘devsari’.Villagers engage watchmen to look after their forests for a price.

5.This price is collected from all the families. There is a large annual gathering — a big hunt where the headmen of all the villages in a ‘pargana’ (a group of villages) meet and discuss matters that concern them.

Q.9. Discuss the new developments in forestry after the 1980s.

Ans: 1. Since the 1980s the governments of Asia and Africa have begun to see that scientific forestry and the policy of keeping forest communities away from the forests has resulted in many conflicts. Conservation and preservation of forests have become the major goal.

2. Collection of timber is a secondary objective. The governments emphasise that in order to conserve and preserve forests the involvement of people is important.

3. These are perfect examples to quote here — across India, from Mizoram to Kerala, dense forests have survived only because villagers protected them in sacred groves known as 'sarnas', 'devarakudu', 'kan', 'rai', etc. Some villagers have been patrolling their own forests, with each household taking it in turns, today are thinking of different forms of forest management.

Q.10. Why did the people of Bastar rise in revolt against the British? Explain.

Ans. (i) In 1905, the colonial government imposed laws to reserve two-thirds of the forests, stop shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce. People of many villages were displaced without any notice or compensation.

(ii) For long, villagers had been suffering from increased land rents and frequent demands for free labour and goods by colonial officials.

(iii) The terrible famines in 1899–1900 and again in 1907–1908 made the life of people miserable. They blamed the colonial rule for their sorry plight.(iv) The initiative of rebellion was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first took place. Gunda Dhur was an important leader of the rebellion.

HOTS

Q.1. How did the local people look after and protect the forests in Bastar region?

Ans. 1.The people of Bastar showed respect to the spirits of the river, the forest and the mountain. Since each village knew its boundary the local people loked after all the natural resources within their boundary.

2. If the people from a village wanted to take some wood from forests of another village, they paid a small fee called 'devsari,' 'dand' or 'man' in exchange.

3. Some villagers also protected their forests by engaging watchmen and each household contributed some grain to pay them.

4. Every year there was one big hunt where the headman of villages in a 'pargana' met and discussed issues of concern, including forests.

Q.2. How did the new forest laws affect the forest dwellers?

Ans.1. Foresters and villagers had very different ideas of what a good forest should look like. Villagers wanted forests with a mixture of species to satisfy different needs — fuel, fodder, leaves. The forest department wanted trees which were suitable for building ships or railways.

2. They needed trees that could provide hard wood and were tall and straight. So particular species like teak and sal were promoted and others were cut. The new forest laws meant severe hardship for villagers across the country.

3. After the Act (Forest Act), all their everyday practices, cutting wood for their houses, grazing their cattle, collecting fruits and roots, hunting and fishing became illegal. People were now forced to steal wood from the forests, and if they were caught they were at the mercy of the forest guards who would take bribes from them.

Q.3. How did the transformation in the forest management during the colonial period affect the following?

(a) Pastoral communities (b) Shifting cultivators

Ans.1. The British required Indian forests in order to build ships and for railways. The British were worried that the use of forest by local people and the reckless felling of trees by traders would destroy forest.

2.Therefore the colonial government decided to invite a German expert DietrichBrandis for advice and made him the first Inspector General of Forests in India.Dietrich Brandis realised that a proper system had to be introduced to manage the forests and people had to be trained in the science of conservation. Rules about the use of forest resources had to be framed.

3. Felling of trees and grazing had to be restricted so that forests in India could be preserved for timber production.The changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people.

(a) Pastoral communities: Pastoral communities were affected by the new forest laws.

Before these laws came into force, the people of pastoral as well as nomadic community had survived by hunting deer, partridges and a variety of small animals. This customary practice was prohibited by the forest laws. Those who were caught hunting were now punished for poaching. Some of them began to be called criminal tribes and were forced to work in factories, mines and plantations under government supervision.

(b) Shifting cultivators:

1 One of the major impacts of European colonialism was on the practice of shifting cultivation or Jhoom agriculture. This is a traditional agricultural practice in several parts of Asia, Africa and South America.

2.European foresters regarded the practice of shifting cultivation as harmful for the forests. They felt that land which was used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees for railway timber. When a forest was burnt, there was the added danger of the flames spreading and burning valuable timber. Shifting cultivation also made it harder for the British government to calculate taxes. So the colonial government decided to ban shifting cultivation. As a result, shifting cultivators were forcibly displaced from their homes in the forests. Some had to change occupations, while some resisted through large and small rebellions.

Q.4 Describe four provisions of the Forest Act of 1878.

Ans. (i) The Forest Act of 1878 divided forests into three categories: reserved, protected and village forests.

(ii) The best forests were called 'reserved forests'.

(iii) Villagers could not take anything from reserved forests, even for their own use.

(iv) For house building or fuel, they could take wood from protected or village forests.

VALUE BASED QUESTIONS

Q.7. Why did land under cultivation increase during colonial rule?

Q.4. what is shifting agriculture? Why was it regarded as harmful by the British?

Q.9. Where is Baster located? Discuss its history and its people.

KEY TO MCQ

Q.1(b) Q.2 (a) Q.3(a) Q.4(b) Q5(c) Q(d) Q.7(c) Q.8(b) Q.9(b) Q.10(a) Q.11(b) Q.12(a) Q.13(b) Q.14(b)

Q.15(b) Q.16(a)Q17(c) Q18(a)Q.19(c) Q.20(d) Q21(d) Q.22(b) Q.23(b) Q.24(b)Q.25(c)

1. List at least six items around you which come from forests.

(i) Paper in books, (ii) wood for desks and tables, (iii) dyes that colour your clothes, (iv) honey, coffee, tea, (v) oil in chocolates, (vi) tanin.

2. Define the term forests.

A forest is an area with high density of trees.

3. Define deforestation.

Disappearance of forests is referred to as deforestation.

4. (a) Who was Dietrich Brandis? What were his achievements? (b) What was the prime aim of Brandis's System of Scientific Forestry?

(a) Dietrich Brandis was the first Inspector General of Forests of India.

His greatest achievement was he set up the Indian Forest Service in 1864 and helped formulate the 1865 Indian Forest Act.

(b) The prime aim of Brandis's System of Scientific Forestry was to restrict felling of trees and grazing, so that forests could be preserved for timber production.

5. Where is Bastar located?

Bastar is located in the southern most part of Chhattisgarh. It borders states of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Maharashtra.

6. Give any two local terms for swidden agriculture.

Dhya, Penda, Jhum, Kumri (any 2).

7. How did forest laws change lives of forest dwellers?

Forest laws deprived forest dwellers of their customary rights of food, fodder and hunt example: to hunt for deer, partridges and a variety of small animals.

8. Under what names is shifting cultivation or swidden agriculture practiced in the following areas:

(i) South East Asia (ii) Central America (iii) Africa (iv) Sri Lanka (v) India.

The local names of shifting cultivation in the following areas are:

(i) South East Asia - Lading

(ii) Central America - Milpa

(iii) Africa - Chitmene or Lavy

(iv) Sri Lanka - Chena

(v) India - Dhya, Penda, Jhum, Kumri.

9. Write a short note on Surontiko Samin.

Surontiko Samin was a villager who lived in Randublatung village, a teak forest in Indonesia. He started a movement questioning state ownership of forests. Under him the movement gained momentum and by 1907, 3,000 families were following his ideas. Some protested by lying down on their lands when the Dutch surveyors came. Others refused to pay taxes, fines or perform any labour.

10. What were siadi creepers used for?

They were used to make ropes.

11. Which three states does Bastar in Chhattisgarh border?

Bastar borders Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Maharashtra.

12. Name any four communities that live in Bastar.

Some of the communities that live in Bastar are: Maria and Muri Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas.

13. What was the chief cause of worry for the people of Bastar during the colonial rule?

People of Bastar were most worried because the colonial government (British) proposed to reserve 2/3rd of the forests in 1905 and stop shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce.

14. What were forest villages'?

Forest villages were those villages which were allowed to stay on in the reserved forests. In return the people had to work free for the forest department. They had to help in cutting, transporting trees and protecting forests from fire.

15. Why are forests useful to us?

Forests are useful to us because they:

(i) Provide bamboo and wood for fuel, charcoal, grass for fodder and fruits for consumption.

(ii) They also provide herbs and roots for medicinal purposes, paper, and commodities like gum, honey, coffee and tanin.

16. Who started the Bastar rebellion?

The Bastar rebellion first, started in the Kanger forest area and soon spread to other parts of the state.

17. What was meant by the Blandongdiensten System?

Under the Blandongdiensten system the Dutch in Indonesia

(i) Imposed rents on land cultivated in the forests.

(ii) Those villages which were exempted had to in return work collectively to provide free labour and buffaloes for cutting and transporting timber.

18. Why are Mahua trees precious?

Mahua trees are precious because they are an essential part of village livelihood. The flowers of the tree can be consumed or used to make alcohol. The seeds are used to extract oil for cooking purposes and lighting lamps.