Diversity in forests has been disappearing very
quickly. During the period of industrialization (between 1700 and 1995), 13.9
million square km of forest was cleared for industrial uses, cultivation,
pasture and fuelwood. This turns out to be 9.3% of the total area of the world.
Disappearance of forests is called deforestation. The process of deforestation
began many centuries ago, but became more systematic and extensive during the
colonial period.
Land
to be Improved
About one-sixth of India’s landmass was under
cultivation in 1600. At present, almost half of the landmass in India has come
under cultivation.
Effect
of Colonial Rule on Forest Cover
Colonizers all over the world thought that
uncultivated land should be taken over so that that could be used for more
commercial purposes. The production of commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat
and cotton increased during this period. This happened because of increasing
demand from a growing population in Europe. Foodgrain was required to feed the
growing population and raw materials were needed for the growing industries.
the cultivated area increased by 6.7 million hectares between 1880 and 1920 in
India.
The oak forests were disappearing in England by the
early twentieth century. This created scarcity for the ship building industry
in Britain. Ships were quite important for military power of the British. They
found good source of wood for shipbuilding in the Indian forests. This began
cutting of trees on a large scale in the Indian forests.
The spread of railways from the 1850s created new
demand for timber. Timber was required for making sleepers for the railway
line. Each mile of railway track needed 1,760 to 2,000 sleepers. About 25,500
km of track had been laid by 1890. It is obvious that a large number of trees
were felled to meet this demand.
Plantations
The British also introduced large plantations for
growing tea, coffee and rubber. European planters were given vast areas of land
at cheap rates so that they could develop plantations. The area was cleared of
forests to make way for tea or coffee.
To properly control and manage the forest resources
in India, the British appointed a German expert, Dietrich Brandis, as the first
Inspector General of Forests in India. Brandis introduced a new system and
began to train people in conservation of forest resources. The Indian Forest
Service was set up in 1864 and the Indian Forest Act was introduced in 1865.
Grazing, felling of trees and any use of forest
produce was made illegal and punishable offence. In the name of scientific
forestry, they replaced natural vegetation with single type of trees like sal
or eucalyptus. The modern conservationists tell this system as monoculture and
argue that it is not good for the environment.
The Indian Forest Act was amended twice, once in
1878 and then in 1927. The 1878 Act divided forests into three categories:
reserved, protected and village forests. They used to take food, medicines,
firewood and many other raw materials from forests. The new laws made their
life miserable. They could not longer take their herds for grazing nor collect
firewood. They were now forced to steal wood from the forests. But there always
was the risk of being caught and harassed by the forest guards.
How
did Forest Rules Affect Cultivation?
Shifting cultivation has been prevalent among many
tribal communities in India. This is a type of subsistence farming in which a
small patch of land is cleared by slashing and burning the vegetation. Ash is
then mixed with the soil and crops are grown. The patch of land is utilised for
a couple of years and is then left fallow for 10 to 12 years.
The colonial officials regarded this practice as
harmful for the forests. They were afraid that an accidental fire could destroy
valuable timber. Moreover, the shifting cultivators were difficult to control
in revenue collection. The government hence banned shifting cultivation.
This affected many families. Many people were forced
to work in low paying jobs, some were forced to migrate to cities in search of
job. However, some people tried to resist the new laws through small and large
rebellions.
Who
could Hunt?
Many tribal people used to hunt some animals; like
deer and partridges; for food. Hunting was banned and anyone caught hunting was
punished. But the Indian Rajas and the British officials continue to hunt large
and ferocious animals. They thought that killing the ferocious animals would
help in making the life much safer. Moreover, hunting of tiger or lion was
considered to be a sign of bravery and valour. Many rajas and British officials
used to display the skin and heads of animals as prized possession.
New
Trades, New Employments and New Services
The new trade was mainly controlled by the British
people with some participation of Indian merchants. For the forest dwellers no
significant opportunities emerged. Many people from Jharkhand, Orissa, and
Chhattisgarh were forced to work in tea gardens of Assam and West Bengal. But
the working condition in the tea gardens was very bad. People were given low
wages and there was no permission to come back to their home villages in
between. Many nomadic tribes who had earlier been engaged in trade of forest
produce continued to do so.
The
People of Bastar
Bastar is located in the southernmost part of
Chhattisgarh and borders Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Maharashtra. Many tribal
communities; like Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhruwas, Bhatras and Halbas; live in
this area. They speak different languages but share common customs and beliefs.
These tribal people had always been dependent on forests and had developed the
practice of keeping the forest in high reverence.
The
Fears of the People
When about two-thirds of the forest was made into
reserve forest and shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest
produce was stopped, it disturbed the people of Bastar. Some villagers were
allowed to stay in the reserved forests. But they had to work for free for the
forest department. The work included cutting and transporting trees and
protecting the forest from fires. Such villages came to be known as ‘forest
villages’.
But most of the people were forced to leave their
villages. Their problem was further aggravated by the famines of 1899-1900 and
1907-08. People began to group together. The Dhurwas were the people to take
initiative. There was no single leader but Gunda Dhur from village Nethanar was
an important figure in that rebellion. The rebellion began in 1910 and every
village contributed towards the rebellion expenses. The rebels looted the
bazaars, houses of officials and traders. They burnt schools and police
stations.
The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion.
Negotiations by adivasi leaders failed and the British surrounded their camps
and fired upon them. Most of the villages became deserted as people too refuge
in the jungles. It took three months (February-May) to control the rebellion.
Work on reservation of forest was suspended for the
time being. The area to be reserved to reduced to about half of what was
earlier planned. This was a major victory for the rebels.
FOREST
TRANSFORMATION IN JAVA
Java is in Indonesia and it used to be a Dutch
colony. This was the place where the new forest management policy was initiated
by the colonial rulers.
The
Woodcutters of Java
The Kalangs of Java were a community of skilled
forest cutters and shifting cultivators. Their expertise was valuable for the
kings; for building palaces. Their importance can be gauged from the fact that
when the Mataram kingdom of Java split in 1755, the 6,000 Kalang families were
equally divided between the two kingdoms.
When the Dutch began to gain control over the
forests in the eighteenth century, they also tried to take the Kalangs under
their control. They resisted by attacking the Dutch fort in 1770 but their
rebellion was suppressed.
Dutch
Scientific Forestry
New forest laws were introduced by the Dutch.
Villagers’ access to the forests was restricted. Permission was given to cut
wood only for specific purposes; like making boats and houses. Grazing was
banned in young stands. Wood could not be transported and travelling on forest
road by horse cart or cattle was also banned.
Wood was cut on large scale to meet the demand for
railways and shipping. In 1882 the number of sleepers exported from Java alone
was 280,000.
Rent was introduced on villagers who cultivated in
the forest. Some villages were exempted in lieu of providing free labour and
buffalo for cutting and transporting the wood. This was known as the
blandongdiensten system.
Samin’s
Challenge
Around 1890, Surontiko Samin of Randublatung
village, a teak forest village, began questioning state ownership of the
forest. He began to convince his folks about the wrong policies of the colonial
rulers. Many families joined that rebellion. People protested by lying down on
their land when the Dutch came to survey it. Many others refused to pay taxes
or fines or do work.
War
and Deforestation
The two World Wars had major impacts on forests.
More trees were cut to meet the wartime needs of Britain.
In Java, the Dutch followed ‘scorched earth’ policy
just before the Japanese occupation of the region. They destroyed sawmills and
burnt huge piles of giant teak logs. The Japanese continued the exploitation of
forests. They forced forest villagers to cut down forests. For many villagers,
it was an opportunity to expand cultivated area.
CONCEPTS:
DEFORESTATION:-
Deforestation is cutting down of trees
indiscriminately in a forest area. Under the colonial rule it became very
systematic and extensive.
Why
Deforestation
As population increased over the centuries and the
demand for food went up, peasants extended the boundaries of cultivation by
clearing forests.
The British encouraged the production of commercial
crops like jute, sugar, wheat and cotton for their industries as raw material.
The British thought that forests were unproductive
land as they yielded neither revenue nor agricultural produce. Cultivation was
viewed as a sign of progress. Oak forests in England were disappearing. There
was no timber supply for the shipbuilder industry. Forest resources of India
were used to make ships for the Royal Navy.
Spread
of railways required two things :
land to be cleared to lay railway tracks
wood as fuel for locomotives and for railway line
sleepers.
Large areas of natural forests were cleared for tea,
coffee and rubber plantations. Thus land was given to planters at cheap rates.
COMMERCIAL
FORESTRY:-
The British were worried that the use of forests by
local people and the reckless felling of trees by traders would destroy forests
and hence invited German expert Dietrich Brandis as first Inspector General of
Forests in India.
Brandis set up the Indian Forest Service in 1864 and
helped formulate the Indian Forest Act of1865. The Imperial Forest Research
Institute was set up in Dehradun in 1906.Scientific forestry was taught there.
In the scientific forestry system, forests with different kinds of trees were
replaced by plantations. Forest management plans were made by forest officials.
They planned how much of the forest had to be cut and how much had to be
replanted.
The
Forest Acts: According to this act the forest were divided
into three categories, but the villagers were dissatisfied with this Forest
Acts. They were now forced to steal wood from the forests. If they were caught,
they were punished.
Forest
Rules and Cultivation
Shifting cultivation or Sweden agriculture was the
agricultural practice in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America. The
colonial foresters did not favour this system as it made it difficult for the
government to calculate taxes. In addition, the forest officials saw in it the
danger of fire and also that no trees could grow on this kind of land.
Hunting
and Forest Laws: The forest laws forbade the villagers
from hunting in the forests but encouraged hunting as a big sport. They felt
that the wild animals were savage, wild and primitive, just like the Indian
society and that it was their duty to civilise them.
New Trade and New Employment: New opportunities
opened in trade as the forest department took control of the forests, e.g., the
Mundurucu peoples of the Brazilian Amazon. With the colonial influence trade
was completely regulated by the government. Many large European trading firms were
given the sole right to trade in forest products of a particulate area. Many
pastoral communities lost their means of livelihood. New opportunities of work
did not always mean improved well-being for the people.
FOREST
REBELLIONS
Forest communities rebelled against the changes
imposed upon them. The people of Bastar were one such group. The initiative was
taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest where reservation first took place.
The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion. It took them three months to
regain control. A victory for the people of Bastar was that the work on
reservation was suspended and the area was reduced to half.
CHANGES
IN JAVA:
The
Kalangs: They rose in rebellion against the
Dutch in 1770 but their uprising was suppressed.
Scientific
Forestry in Java: Forest laws were enacted in Java. The
villagers resisted these laws.Forest timber was used for ships and railway
sleepers. The Dutch government used the ‘balandongdiensten’ system for
extracting free labour from the villagers.
Samin’s
Movement: Samin of Randublatung village (a teak
forest village) questioned the state ownership of forests. A widespread
movement spread. They protested by lying on the ground when the Dutch came to
survey it and refusing to pay taxes and perform labour.
World
Wars and Deforestation: The world wars had a major impact
on forests. The forest department cut freely to meet the British demands. The
Dutch followed the scorched earth policy of destroying saw mills, burning logs
of teak so that the Japanese could not benefit from it. The Japanese forced the
villagers to cut down forests, when they occupied the area.
New
Developments: Conservation and preservation of
forests has now become the focus rather than timber. It has also been realised
that if forests are to survive, the local community needs to be involved. There
are many such examples in India where communities are conserving forests in
sacred groves. This looking after is done by each member of the village and
everyone is involved.
Tea/Coffee
plantations — The colonial state thought that
forest land was unproductive.
It is unable to yield agricultural production or
revenue collection. Large areas of natural forests were hence cleared to make
way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations to meet Europe’s growing need for
these commodities. The colonial government took over the forests and gave vast
areas to European planters at cheap rates. The areas were enclosed and cleared
of forests and planted with tea or coffee.
Advasis and other peasant users — Adivasis and other
peasant users do not cut down forests except to practice shifting cultivation
or gather timber for fuel. They also gather forest products and graze their
cattle. This does not destroy the forests except sometimes in shifting
agriculture. In fact, now the new trends that promote forest conservation tend
to involve local villagers in conservation and preservation. The adivasis and
other peasant communities regard the forests as their own and even engage
watchmen to keep a vigil over their forests.
MULTIPLE
CHOICE QUESTIONS
Q.1.
Who was the colonial power in Indonesia?
(a) British (b) Dutch (c) French (d) Portuguese
Q.2.Which
place is now famous as a rice-producing island in Indonesia?
(a) Java (b) Sumatra (c) Borneo (d) Kalimantan
Q.3.
Where did the Dutch start forest management in Indonesia?
(a) Java (b) Sumatra (c) Bali (d) None of the above
Q.4.
Who was ‘Kalangs’ of Java?
(a) Dynasty of rulers (b) Skilled forest cutters and
shifting cultivators
(c) A community of moneylenders (d) none of the
above
Q.5
The Kalangs resisted the Dutch in
(a) 1700 (b) 1750 (c) 1770 (d) 1800
Q.6.
According to the forest laws enacted by the Dutch in Java,
(a) Villagers’ access to forest was restricted
(b) Wood could be cut only for specified purposes
like making river boats or constructing houses
(c) Villagers were punished for grazing cattle
(d) All the above
Q.7.What
was the system of ‘blandongdiensten’?
(a) A system of education (b) Industrialisation
(c) First imposition of rent on land and then
exemption (d) None of the above
Q.8.What
did Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village, a teak forest village, begin
questioning?
(a) The foreign policy of the Dutch (b) State
ownership of the forest
(c) The export policy of the Dutch (d) none of the
above
Q.9.What
was the policy followed by the British in India towards forests during the
First and the Second World Wars?
(a) The forest department cut trees freely to meet
British war needs
(b) Cutting of trees was strictly prohibited for
everyone, including the British
(c) More and more trees were planted to give
employment to Indians
(d) None of the above
Q.10.What
is the goal of governments across Asia and Africa since the 1980s?
(a) Conservation of forests (b) Collection of timber
(c) Settling people in forest areas (d) Destroying
old forests and growing new ones
Q.11.
Who wrote the book ‘The Forests of India’ in the year 1923?
(a) David Spurr (b) E.P. Stebbing (c) Verrier Elvin
(d) John Middleton
Q12.
Which of the following is not associated with Sweden agriculture?
(a) Karacha (b) Jhum (c) Bewar (d) Penda
Q13.
Indian Forest Service was set up in the year:
(a) 1865 (b) 1864 (c) 1854 (d) 1884
Q14.
Which of the following was not a tribal community?
(a) Karacha (b) Jhum (c) Korava (d) Yerukula
Q15.
The system of scientific forestry stands for:
(a) System whereby the local farmers were allowed to
cultivate temporarily within a plantation
(b) System of cutting old trees and plant new ones
(c) Division of forest into three categories
(d) Disappearance of forests
Q16.
In which year the Baster rebellion took place?
(a) 1910 (b) 1909 (c) 1911 (d) 1912
Q17.
In South-East Asia shifting agriculture is known as:
(A) Chitemene (b) Tavy (c) Lading (d) Milpa
Q18.
The Gond forest community belongs to which of the following
(a) Chhattisgarh (b) Jharkhand (c) Jammu and Kashmir
(d) Gujarat
Q19.
Forests consisting of which type of trees were preferred by the Forest Department?
(a) Forests having trees which provided fuel, fodder
and leaves
(b) Forests having soft wood
(c) Forests having trees suitable for building ships
and railways
Q20.
Which of the following term is not associated with shifting agriculture in
India?
(a) Penda (b) Bewar (c) Khandad (d) Lading
Q21.
Which of the following is a community of skilled forest cutters?
(a) Maasais of Africa (b) Mundas of Chotanagpur(c)
Gonds of Orissa (d) Kalangs of Java
Q22.
Why did the government decide to ban shifting cultivation? (a) To grow trees
for railway timber
(b) When a forest was burnt, there was the danger of
destroying valuable timber
(c) Difficulties for the government to calculate
taxes
(d) All the above reasons
Q23.
Wooden planks lay across railway tracks to hold these tracks in a position are
called:
(a) Beams (b) Sleepers (c) Rail fasteners (d) none
of these
Q24.
Which of the following was the most essential for the colonial trade and
movement of goods?
(a) Roadways (b) Railways (c) Airways (d) River ways
Q25.
Which of the following is a commercial crop?
(a) Rice (b) Wheat (c) Cotton (d) Maize
SHORT
ANSWER QUESTIONS
Q.1
what is deforestation? Why is it considered harmful?
Ans. 1 The disappearance of forests is referred to
as deforestation. Forests are cleared for industrial uses, cultivation,
pastures and fuel wood.
2.Clearing of forests is harmful as forests give us
many things like paper, wood that makes our desks, tables, doors and windows,
dyes that colour our clothes, spices in our food, gum, honey, coffee, tea and
rubber. They are the home of animals and birds.
3. Forests check soil erosion and denudation, sand
dunes. They preserve our ecological diversity and life support systems.
Q.2.
Describe scientific forestry.
Ans. 1. In scientific forestry, different types of
natural forests were cut down. In their place one type of tree was planted in
straight rows. This is called a plantation.
2. Forest officials surveyed the forests, estimated
the area under different types of trees and made working plans for forest
management. They planned how much of the plantation area to be cut every year.
3.The forest area was cut down then to be replanted.
Q.3.
Mention the various uses of forests
Ans. 1.Forests give us a mixture of things to
satisfy our different needs — fuel, fodder, leaves, trees suitable for building
ships or railways, trees that can provide hard wood.
2. Forest products like roots, fruits, tubers, herbs
are used for medicinal purposes, wood for agricultural implements like yokes,
ploughs etc. Forests provide shelter to animals and birds. They also add
moisture to atmosphere. Rainfall is trapped in forest lands.
Q.4.What
is shifting agriculture? Why was it regarded as harmful by the British?
Ans. 1.Shifting agriculture or Sweden agriculture is
a traditional agricultural practice in many parts of Asia, Africa and South
America. It has many local names such as ‘lading’ in South-EastAsia, ‘milpa’ in
central America, ‘chitemene’ or ‘tavy’ in Africa, ‘chena’ in Sril Lanka, dhya, Penda,
bewar, nevad, jhum, podu, khandad and kumri in India.
2.In shifting cultivation, parts of a forest are cut
and burnt in rotation, seeds are sown in ashes after the first monsoon rains
and the crop is harvested by October-November. Such plots are cultivated for a
couple of years and then left fallow for 12 to 18 years for the forest to grow
back.
3.It was regarded as harmful by the British for the
forests. They felt that land which was used for cultivation every few years
could not grow trees for railway timber. When the forest was burnt there was
the danger of the flames spreading and burning valuable timber.
Q.5.
Explain why did the Dutch adopt the ‘scorched earth policy’ during the war.
Ans.1. The First World War and Second World War had
a major impact on forests. In India, working places were abandoned and trees
were cut freely to meet British demand for war needs.
2. In Java, just before the Japanese occupied the
region, the Dutch followed the ‘scorched earth policy’ destroying saw mills,
burning huge piles of giant teak logs so that they could not fall into Japanese
hands.
Q.6.
How did the forest rules affect cultivation?
Ans. 1.One of the major impacts of European
colonialism was on the practice of shifting cultivation or Jhoom cultivation
.In shifting cultivation, a clearing is made in the forest, usually on the
slopes of the hills. After the trees are cut, they are burnt to provide ashes.
The seeds are then scattered in the area, and left to be irrigated by the rain.
2. Shifting cultivation was harmful for forests and
the land both.
3. It also made it harder for the Government to
calculate taxes. Therefore, the government decided to ban shifting cultivation.
Q.7.
Why did land under cultivation increase during colonial rule?
Ans. During the British domination of India, the
British encouraged the cultivation of cash crops such as jute, indigo, cotton,
etc. Food crops were also required to be grown for food. Both things were
important. 2.Secondly, the forests were considered unproductive by the British
government and hence large areas of forests were cleared for agriculture. Now
this forest land could be cultivated to enhance the income of this state.
Q.8.What
did Dietrich Brandis suggest for the improvement of forests in India?
Ans. Dietrich Brandis suggested that a proper system
had to be followed. Felling of trees and grazing land had to be protected.
Rules about use of forests should be made. Anyone who broke rules needed to be
punished. Brandis set up in 1864 the Indian Forest Service. He also helped to
formulate the Indian Forest Act of 1865.
Q.9.What
was taught at the Imperial Forest Research Institute? How was this system
carried out?
Ans. 1.Scientific forestry was taught at the
Imperial Forest Research Institute. In this system, natural forests which had a
variety of trees were cut down and, instead, one type of tree was planted.
2. Appointed forest officials managed these forests.
They planned and assessed how much of the planted area had to be cut down and
how much had to be replanted.
Q.10.
Differentiate between the customary practice of hunting and hunting as a sport
in India, after the Forest Acts were passed.
Ans. Before the laws were passed, people who
depended on forests hunted birds and small animals for food. After the laws
were passed, hunting of big game became a sport. Under colonial rule the scale
of hunting increased so much that many species became extinct. Rewards were
given for killing tigers, wolves, etc., on the pretext that they were a threat
to human life. Certain areas of the forests were reserved for hunting.
LONG
ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS [5 MARKS]
Q.1.
Discuss the rise of commercial forestry under the colonial governments.
Ans. 1. Commercial forestry became important during
the British rule. By the early nineteenth century oak forests in England were
disappearing. This created a problem of shortage of timber supply for the Navy.
2. The English ships could not be built without a
regular supply of strong and durable timber to protect and maintain imperial
power.
3. Because of the factors given above, before 1856
the commercial forestry was considered important in India. By the 1820s, search
parties were sent to explore the forest resources of India.
4. These parties gave them green signal for
commercial forestry in India. Within a decade trees were being felled on a
massive scale and large quantities of timber were being exported from India. 5.The
spread of railway from the 1850s created a new demand. In India, the colonial
government felt that railways were essential for effective internal
administration, for colonial trade, for the quick movement of imperial troops.
Q.3.
“The introduction of extremely exploitative and oppressive policies proved to
be a disaster.” With reference to Bastar —
(a)
What were these policies? (b) What were the consequences of these policies?
Ans. (a) The colonial government proposed to reserve
two-thirds of the forest in 1905 and stop shifting cultivation, hunting and
collection of forest produce.
The people of Baster were very worried. Some
villages were allowed to remain on in the reserved forests on the condition
that they worked free for the forest department in cutting and transporting
trees and protecting the forests from fires.
Subsequently these came to be known as forest villages.
People of other villages were displaced without any notice or compensation. For
long the villagers had been suffering from increased land rents and frequent
demands for free labour and goods by colonial officials.
Then came the terrible famines in 1899-1900 and
again in 1907-1908. Reservations proved to be the last straw.
(b) People began to gather and discuss these issues
in their village councils, in bazars and at festivals or wherever the headmen
and priests of several villages were assembled. The initiative was taken by the
Dhruvas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first took place.
Although there was no single leader, many people
speak of Gunda Dhur from villageNethanar as an important figure in the movement
in 1910 mango boughs, a limp of earth, chillies and arrows, began circulating
between villages.
These were
actually messages inviting villagers to rebel against the British. Every
village contributed something to the rebellion expenses. Bazars were looted,
the houses of officials and traders, schools and police stations were burnt and
robbed and grain redistributed.
The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion.
The adivasi leaders tried to negotiate, but the British surrounded their camps
and fired upon them. After that they marched through the villages, flogging and
punishing those who had taken part in the rebellion. It took three months for
the British to regain control.
However, they never managed to capture Gunda Dhur.
In a major victory for the rebels, work on reservation was temporarily
suspended and the area to be reserved was reduced to roughly that planned
before 1910. Were forcibly displaced from their homes in the forests. Some had
to change occupations, while some resisted through large and small rebellions.
Q.5.
How did the following contribute towards the decline of forest cover in India
between1880-1920
(a)
Railways and shipbuilding (b) Commercial farming
Ans. (a) (1) Railways: The spread of railways from
1850s created a new demand. Railways were essential for successful colonial
control, administration, trade and movement of troops.
Thus to run locomotives,
(a) wood was needed as fuel
(b) and to
lay railway lines as sleepers were essential to hold tracks together.
As the
railway tracks spread throughout India, larger and larger number of trees were
felled. Forests around the railway tracks started disappearing fast.
(2) Shipbuilding: UK had the largest colonial empire
in the world. Shortage of oak forests created a great timber problem for the
shipbuilding of England. For the Royal Navy, large wooden boats, ships,
courtyards for shipping etc., trees from Indian forests were being felled on
massive scale from the 1820s or 1830s to export large quantities of timber from
India. Thus the forest cover of the subcontinent declined rapidly.
(b) Commercial Farming: Large areas of natural
forest were also cleared to make space for the plantations or commercial
farming. Jute, rubber, indigo, tobacco etc. were the commercial crops that were
planted to meet Britain’s growing need for these commodities. The British
colonial government took over the forests and gave of a vast area and export to
Europe. Large areas of forests were cleared on the hilly slopes to plant tea or
coffee.
This also contributed to the decline of the forest
cover in India.
Q.6.
How was colonial management of forests in Bastar similar to that of Java?
Ans. The colonial government imposed new forest laws
according to which two-thirds of the forests were reserved. Shifting
cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce was banned.
Most people in forest villages were displaced
without notice or compensation.
In the same way, when the Dutch gained control over
the forests in Java, they enacted forest laws, restricting villagers' access to
forests. Now wood could only be cut for specific purposes and from specific
forests under close supervision.
Villagers were punished for grazing cattle,
transporting wood without a permit or travelling on forest road with
horse-carts or cattle. This was the similarity between the British (in Bastar)
and Dutch (in Java) management of forests.
Q.7.
What new trends and developments have affected the forestry of today?
Ans. 1.Since the 1980s governments across Asia and
Africa have begun to see that scientific forestry and the policy of keeping
forest communities away from forests has resulted in many conflicts.
Conservation of forests rather than collecting timber has become a more
important goal.
2.The government has realised/recognised that in
order to meet this goal, the people who live near the forests must be involved.
3.In many cases, across India, from Mizoram to
Kerala, dense forests have survived only because villagers protected them in
sacred groves known as sarnas, Devarakudu, kau, rai etc. Some villages have
been patrolling their own forests, with each household taking it in turns,
instead of leaving it to the forest guards. Local forest communities and
environmentalists today are thinking of different forms of forest management.
Q.8.
Where is Bastar located? Discuss its history and its people
Ans. 1. Bastar is situated in the southern part of
Chhattisgarh and borders Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. The river
Indrāvati flows from east to west across Bastar. The central part ofBastar is a
plateau. To the north of this plateau is the Chhattisgarh plain and to its
south is the Godavari plain.
2.The people of Bastar believe that each village was
bestowed land by the earth and hence they offer something in return during
agricultural celebrations. Apart from the earth the people of Bastar show
reverence to the spirits of rivers, forests and the mountains.
3.Different communities such as Maria and Muria
Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas practise common customs and beliefs but
speak different dialects. Each village is well aware of its boundaries. They
look after and preserve their natural resources.
4.There exists a give and take relationship among
the communities. If a village wants some forest produce from another village a
small price is paid before taking it. This price is called ‘dhand’ or ‘man’ or
‘devsari’.Villagers engage watchmen to look after their forests for a price.
5.This price is collected from all the families.
There is a large annual gathering — a big hunt where the headmen of all the
villages in a ‘pargana’ (a group of villages) meet and discuss matters that
concern them.
Q.9.
Discuss the new developments in forestry after the 1980s.
Ans: 1. Since the 1980s the governments of Asia and
Africa have begun to see that scientific forestry and the policy of keeping
forest communities away from the forests has resulted in many conflicts.
Conservation and preservation of forests have become the major goal.
2. Collection of timber is a secondary objective.
The governments emphasise that in order to conserve and preserve forests the
involvement of people is important.
3. These are perfect examples to quote here — across
India, from Mizoram to Kerala, dense forests have survived only because
villagers protected them in sacred groves known as 'sarnas', 'devarakudu',
'kan', 'rai', etc. Some villagers have been patrolling their own forests, with
each household taking it in turns, today are thinking of different forms of
forest management.
Q.10.
Why did the people of Bastar rise in revolt against the British? Explain.
Ans. (i) In 1905, the colonial government imposed
laws to reserve two-thirds of the forests, stop shifting cultivation, hunting
and collection of forest produce. People of many villages were displaced
without any notice or compensation.
(ii) For long, villagers had been suffering from
increased land rents and frequent demands for free labour and goods by colonial
officials.
(iii) The terrible famines in 1899–1900 and again in
1907–1908 made the life of people miserable. They blamed the colonial rule for
their sorry plight.(iv) The initiative of rebellion was taken by the Dhurwas of
the Kanger forest, where reservation first took place. Gunda Dhur was an
important leader of the rebellion.
HOTS
Q.1.
How did the local people look after and protect the forests in Bastar region?
Ans. 1.The people of Bastar showed respect to the
spirits of the river, the forest and the mountain. Since each village knew its
boundary the local people loked after all the natural resources within their
boundary.
2. If the people from a village wanted to take some
wood from forests of another village, they paid a small fee called 'devsari,'
'dand' or 'man' in exchange.
3. Some villagers also protected their forests by
engaging watchmen and each household contributed some grain to pay them.
4. Every year there was one big hunt where the
headman of villages in a 'pargana' met and discussed issues of concern,
including forests.
Q.2.
How did the new forest laws affect the forest dwellers?
Ans.1. Foresters and villagers had very different
ideas of what a good forest should look like. Villagers wanted forests with a
mixture of species to satisfy different needs — fuel, fodder, leaves. The
forest department wanted trees which were suitable for building ships or
railways.
2. They needed trees that could provide hard wood
and were tall and straight. So particular species like teak and sal were
promoted and others were cut. The new forest laws meant severe hardship for
villagers across the country.
3. After the Act (Forest Act), all their everyday
practices, cutting wood for their houses, grazing their cattle, collecting
fruits and roots, hunting and fishing became illegal. People were now forced to
steal wood from the forests, and if they were caught they were at the mercy of
the forest guards who would take bribes from them.
Q.3.
How did the transformation in the forest management during the colonial period
affect the following?
(a)
Pastoral communities (b) Shifting cultivators
Ans.1. The British required Indian forests in order
to build ships and for railways. The British were worried that the use of
forest by local people and the reckless felling of trees by traders would
destroy forest.
2.Therefore the colonial government decided to
invite a German expert DietrichBrandis for advice and made him the first
Inspector General of Forests in India.Dietrich Brandis realised that a proper
system had to be introduced to manage the forests and people had to be trained
in the science of conservation. Rules about the use of forest resources had to
be framed.
3. Felling of trees and grazing had to be restricted
so that forests in India could be preserved for timber production.The changes
in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of
people.
(a)
Pastoral communities: Pastoral communities were
affected by the new forest laws.
Before these laws came into force, the people of
pastoral as well as nomadic community had survived by hunting deer, partridges
and a variety of small animals. This customary practice was prohibited by the
forest laws. Those who were caught hunting were now punished for poaching. Some
of them began to be called criminal tribes and were forced to work in
factories, mines and plantations under government supervision.
(b)
Shifting cultivators:
1 One of the major impacts of European colonialism
was on the practice of shifting cultivation or Jhoom agriculture. This is a
traditional agricultural practice in several parts of Asia, Africa and South
America.
2.European foresters regarded the practice of
shifting cultivation as harmful for the forests. They felt that land which was
used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees for railway timber.
When a forest was burnt, there was the added danger of the flames spreading and
burning valuable timber. Shifting cultivation also made it harder for the British
government to calculate taxes. So the colonial government decided to ban
shifting cultivation. As a result, shifting cultivators were forcibly displaced
from their homes in the forests. Some had to change occupations, while some
resisted through large and small rebellions.
Q.4
Describe four provisions of the Forest Act of 1878.
Ans. (i) The Forest Act of 1878 divided forests into
three categories: reserved, protected and village forests.
(ii) The best forests were called 'reserved
forests'.
(iii) Villagers could not take anything from
reserved forests, even for their own use.
(iv) For house building or fuel, they could take
wood from protected or village forests.
VALUE
BASED QUESTIONS
Q.7. Why did land under cultivation increase during
colonial rule?
Q.4. what is shifting agriculture? Why was it
regarded as harmful by the British?
Q.9. Where is Baster located? Discuss its history
and its people.
KEY
TO MCQ
Q.1(b) Q.2 (a) Q.3(a) Q.4(b) Q5(c) Q(d) Q.7(c) Q.8(b)
Q.9(b) Q.10(a) Q.11(b) Q.12(a) Q.13(b) Q.14(b)
Q.15(b) Q.16(a)Q17(c) Q18(a)Q.19(c) Q.20(d) Q21(d) Q.22(b)
Q.23(b) Q.24(b)Q.25(c)
1.
List at least six items around you which come from forests.
(i) Paper in books, (ii) wood for desks and tables,
(iii) dyes that colour your clothes, (iv) honey, coffee, tea, (v) oil in
chocolates, (vi) tanin.
2.
Define the term forests.
A forest is an area with high density of trees.
3.
Define deforestation.
Disappearance of forests is referred to as
deforestation.
4. (a) Who was Dietrich Brandis? What were his
achievements? (b) What was the prime aim of Brandis's System of Scientific
Forestry?
(a) Dietrich Brandis was the first Inspector General
of Forests of India.
His greatest achievement was he set up the Indian
Forest Service in 1864 and helped formulate the 1865 Indian Forest Act.
(b) The prime aim of Brandis's System of Scientific
Forestry was to restrict felling of trees and grazing, so that forests could be
preserved for timber production.
5.
Where is Bastar located?
Bastar is located in the southern most part of
Chhattisgarh. It borders states of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Maharashtra.
6.
Give any two local terms for swidden agriculture.
Dhya, Penda, Jhum, Kumri (any 2).
7.
How did forest laws change lives of forest dwellers?
Forest laws deprived forest dwellers of their
customary rights of food, fodder and hunt example: to hunt for deer, partridges
and a variety of small animals.
8.
Under what names is shifting cultivation or swidden agriculture practiced in
the following areas:
(i) South East Asia (ii) Central America (iii)
Africa (iv) Sri Lanka (v) India.
The local names of shifting cultivation in the
following areas are:
(i) South East Asia - Lading
(ii) Central America - Milpa
(iii) Africa - Chitmene or Lavy
(iv) Sri Lanka - Chena
(v) India - Dhya, Penda, Jhum, Kumri.
9.
Write a short note on Surontiko Samin.
Surontiko Samin was a villager who lived in
Randublatung village, a teak forest in Indonesia. He started a movement
questioning state ownership of forests. Under him the movement gained momentum
and by 1907, 3,000 families were following his ideas. Some protested by lying
down on their lands when the Dutch surveyors came. Others refused to pay taxes,
fines or perform any labour.
10.
What were siadi creepers used for?
They were used to make ropes.
11.
Which three states does Bastar in Chhattisgarh border?
Bastar borders Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and
Maharashtra.
12.
Name any four communities that live in Bastar.
Some of the communities that live in Bastar are:
Maria and Muri Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas.
13.
What was the chief cause of worry for the people of Bastar during the colonial
rule?
People of Bastar were most worried because the
colonial government (British) proposed to reserve 2/3rd of the forests in 1905
and stop shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce.
14.
What were forest villages'?
Forest villages were those villages which were allowed
to stay on in the reserved forests. In return the people had to work free for
the forest department. They had to help in cutting, transporting trees and
protecting forests from fire.
15.
Why are forests useful to us?
Forests are useful to us because they:
(i) Provide bamboo and wood for fuel, charcoal,
grass for fodder and fruits for consumption.
(ii) They also provide herbs and roots for medicinal
purposes, paper, and commodities like gum, honey, coffee and tanin.
16.
Who started the Bastar rebellion?
The Bastar rebellion first, started in the Kanger
forest area and soon spread to other parts of the state.
17.
What was meant by the Blandongdiensten System?
Under the Blandongdiensten system the Dutch in
Indonesia
(i) Imposed rents on land cultivated in the forests.
(ii) Those villages which were exempted had to in
return work collectively to provide free labour and buffaloes for cutting and
transporting timber.
18.
Why are Mahua trees precious?
Mahua trees are precious because they are an
essential part of village livelihood. The flowers of the tree can be consumed
or used to make alcohol. The seeds are used to extract oil for cooking purposes
and lighting lamps.
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